History of Rhodesia
The First Steps
The rise of Cecil John Rhodes, the “Diamond King,” represents an era of colonial expansion, driven by strategic resource exploitation and Rhodes’ unique ambition. Rhodes arrived in South Africa in 1870, a sickly, unassuming 17-year-old sent for his health. South Africa had recently captured global attention when diamonds were discovered in Griqualand West, positioning the region as an epicenter of wealth and conflict. Though plagued by health issues and humble beginnings, Rhodes arrived with the sharp instincts and capital from his Aunt Sophia to take his chance on the diamond fields.
Rhodes’ initial foray into farming was brief; he quickly abandoned it, sensing greater opportunities in Kimberley, where he initially joined the diggings and later turned to trading claims, pumping contracts, and entrepreneurial ventures. These ventures revealed Rhodes’ financial acumen, practicality, and ambition. Rather than merely working, he aimed to amass significant capital, viewing wealth as a tool for influence and control, a view that would underpin his life’s work.
Amid Kimberley’s bustling, chaotic digger society, Rhodes’ vision crystallized. He imagined not just personal wealth but a British-controlled empire stretching from Cape to Cairo, supporting his belief in Britain’s “God-given” mission to civilize and unite the world under English rule. This ideology was captured in his first will, where he outlined a “Secret Society” dedicated to expanding British influence globally, including the recapture of the United States as part of the British Empire. He believed British colonization would establish a “great power” capable of ending wars and advancing humanity’s welfare.
Driven by this vision, Rhodes sought the elite credibility of an Oxford degree. Despite suffering a heart attack, which underscored his mortality, he returned to England, leaving his thriving ventures in the capable hands of Charles Rudd. Rhodes’ pursuit of empire (ambitious, controversial, and relentless) would shape South Africa’s history, driving its wealth and political future, but also casting long shadows across the continent as the British colonial presence intensified under his influence.
In 1873, Rhodes’ time at Oxford was transformative as he encountered advanced ideas of empire and destiny. Oxford’s atmosphere, filled with young men of noble and colonial origins, offered Rhodes intellectual camaraderie and reinforced his sense of purpose within the British Empire's ideology.
One of the influences at Oxford was Victorian thinker John Ruskin, who called upon England’s youth to expand Britain’s influence, urging them to create colonies and spread British values. Ruskin's vision for a "Sceptered Isle" deeply resonated with Rhodes, aligning with his own imperialistic aspirations. Inspired, Rhodes penned a manifesto advocating for English expansion, asserting that British dominion over foreign lands would foster global peace. Although rejected for publication, his writings revealed his belief in English racial superiority and his conviction that expanding the British Empire would bring prosperity.
Rhodes perceived Africa as fertile ground for Britain’s expansion and believed that African people could be developed under British rule. Like many Victorians, he justified British colonialism as a mission to "uplift" the "uncivilized" world by spreading Christianity and commerce. He viewed this as beneficial for both Britons and Africans, a stance he termed "philanthropy plus 5 percent", a philanthropic endeavor combined with profit.
Cecil Rhodes’ journey in South Africa was marked by ambition, political savvy, and complex personal relationships. As a British imperialist, he sought to unite South Africa under British control while expanding British influence in Africa. This goal aligned with his diamond interests in Kimberley, where he began consolidating power. By 1887, Rhodes had founded De Beers, establishing a near-monopoly on diamond production to control prices.
Politically, Rhodes entered the Cape Parliament in 1881 and quickly allied with the Dutch-speaking Afrikaner Bond, hoping to bridge divides among South Africa’s territories. At the time, the area was split into British colonies (Cape and Natal) and Boer republics (Transvaal and Orange Free State). Tensions were fueled by economic disparity, particularly as English-speaking “Uitlanders” (foreigners) controlled mining but had limited political power. Rhodes recognized these conflicts and sought to unify the territories, especially as German interests in neighboring regions grew, which posed a threat to British dominance.
When Germany claimed Damaraland (South West Africa), Rhodes anticipated further expansion, threatening British control. He moved strategically to secure British influence by establishing a protectorate over Bechuanaland, blocking Germany’s path. This political maneuver solidified Rhodes’ power, making him a pivotal figure in British imperialism. The interior remained vulnerable, with diplomats gathering in kwaBulawayo, the Ndebele capital, seeking agreements with King Lobengula, marking the start of further expansion into Central Africa.
On November 15, 1884, a pivotal event in African history began when European leaders met in Berlin at German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's residence for what became the Berlin Conference. The aim was to establish guidelines for the European division and colonization of Africa, spurred in part by Belgian King Leopold II’s unilateral claim to the Congo Basin, a move that other powers wanted to avoid repeating without mutual agreement. To prevent competition from escalating into conflict, the conference mandated two main principles for colonial legitimacy:
Annexations had to include treaties with local rulers requesting European protection.
The colonial power had to demonstrate effective occupation and administration.
During this era, Africa was deeply affected by internal fragmentation from slavery and warfare, making resistance to European domination challenging, though centralized kingdoms like the amaNdebele, led by Lobengula, stood as notable exceptions. Lobengula faced mounting pressure from European powers, especially from private investors and concession seekers who vied for influence in his kingdom. While he managed to keep European interference minimal for a time, he eventually found himself reluctantly engaging with foreign interests, especially as neighboring chiefs like Kgosi Khama III accepted British protection with seemingly favorable outcomes.
Lobengula was wary of the potential threat, recalling the fate of the Zulu kingdom after its defeat in the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879. However, despite considering aligning with the British for protection, Lobengula faced strong resistance from his advisors and people, who generally opposed any European alliances and advised expelling foreigners by force. In the end, Lobengula’s indecision allowed Europeans, particularly the British under Cecil Rhodes, to maintain a foothold in his territory.
Rhodes wanted to secure Matabeleland as part of his vision for a British-controlled route from Cape to Cairo. When he learned of a treaty of friendship Lobengula had signed with Transvaal’s Afrikaner Piet Grobler, Rhodes interpreted it as a direct threat to British interests and quickly sought to supersede it with a British-backed treaty. With the help of colonial officials like Sir Hercules Robinson and Sir Sidney Shippard (a British authority whose presence underscored imperial power), Rhodes pressured the British government to declare Matabeleland a protectorate. Robinson proposed a “friendship treaty” as a temporary measure until formal control could be secured, and John Moffat, a respected colonial official familiar with Lobengula, was dispatched to negotiate it.
On February 11, 1888, Lobengula signed the treaty, which prohibited him from entering agreements with other foreign powers without British approval. While the treaty seemed benign, it effectively limited Lobengula’s sovereignty and allowed Rhodes to present the appearance of British backing, strengthening his position. Following this, Lobengula's court became divided, with some advisors suspicious of British motives. As Rhodes continued his strategic maneuvers, Lobengula found himself trapped, uncertain of whom to trust, as the British presence steadily grew in his kingdom, signifying a loss of control over his land and people.
The British government’s cautious stance on territorial expansion initially limited Rhodes’ aspirations. Although he had secured the Moffat Treaty, a friendly agreement, it did not grant the formal protection or economic exploitation rights Rhodes desired. This gap prompted Rhodes to seek a direct concession from Lobengula. At the time, two British businessmen, Gifford and Cawston, posed competition with their interest in exploiting Matabeleland. Their Bechuanaland Exploration Company aimed to secure mining rights in the territory. Rhodes, sensing urgency, planned his own approach by sending a team to negotiate directly with Lobengula. His delegation, led by Charles Rudd, included the unreliable Francis Thompson and lawyer James Rochfort Maguire, who served as interpreter and contract overseer.
The team’s arrival in Matabeleland was marked by resistance, hostility, and delayed permissions, as Lobengula was hesitant to grant them entry. Despite facing disdain from both the local residents and the council of advisors, known as indunas, Rudd’s team pressed on, relying on personal audacity and strategic alliances with sympathetic missionaries like John Moffat and Reverend Charles Helm. Ultimately, after prolonged negotiation and indirect pressure from figures such as Sir Sidney Shippard, Lobengula reluctantly consented to the Rudd Concession. This document granted Rhodes' company the right to mine and explore vast lands under the promise of British imperial support. Lobengula’s agreement was swayed by promises of weapons and a regular stipend, though Helm controversially omitted key protective clauses Lobengula believed were included, tricking him into surrendering far more than he realized.
After signing the Rudd Concession, Lobengula found himself grappling with doubts and skepticism, fueled by advisors and news that sparked fears of British invasion. As Rudd hastily departed Bulawayo, his colleagues, Maguire and Thompson, remained but lacked authority, giving Lobengula’s advisors room to influence him against the deal. Aware of the foreign view of the Concession, Lobengula sought clarity and invited all Europeans in Bulawayo, who fed him conflicting perspectives, leaving him feeling deceived and trapped.
In response, Maund and Renny-Tailyour proposed that Lobengula send ambassadors to London to appeal to Queen Victoria, undermining Rhodes’s authority. Lobengula chose advisors Mtshete and Babayane, who left in late 1888, traveling through the Transvaal with Maund, despite Rhodes's attempts to intercept and thwart them. Rhodes’s anxiety over the embassy was evident as he tried unsuccessfully to bribe or intimidate Maund. Once in London, however, the mission’s impact faded; Rhodes, leveraging his resources and influence, secured powerful support, while the Matabele envoys were reduced to a diplomatic formality.
By 1890, Rhodes had effectively nullified opposition, co-opting aristocratic and media support while discrediting any rivals. Through subterfuge, power, and alliances, Rhodes steered British expansion into Matabeleland, symbolizing imperial ambitions eclipsing indigenous rights.
The Founder: Cecil Rhodes and the Pursuit of Power (1988). Robert I. Rotberg
Rhodesia: A Complete History 1890-1980 (2018). Peter Baxter
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